Educational Psychology: Quantitative Research Methods

Educational Psychology: Quantitative Research Methods Rachel Price Select a psychological discipline and Identify the primary research methods and designs  used in that discipline, and consider why that may be the case. This assignment will look at a number research methods and designs used in Educational Psychology. While there are numerous research methods and designs used in Educational Psychology this assignment will focus on the use of quantitative research in the forms of interviews, questionnaires and case studies and will also discuss quantitative research in the form of psychometric testing used in the assessment of dyslexia such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (Wechsler 1949) and the Kaufman assessment battery for children (Kaufman Kaufman, 1983) and why each of the methods discussed are used, while looking at the validity and limitations of the methods and design. Educational Psychology is defined by Wittrock (1989) as the scientific discipline concerned with the development, evaluation, application and principles and theories of human learning. Educational Psychologists complete research when they examine the cognitive development of young children, explore the relationship between teachers preferences, educational experiences and classroom performance, and manipulate the structural features of lessons and study that result in student participation levels or explore the issues associated with the interaction of teachers and learners and learning contexts in situations (Berliner Calfee, 2004). Alexander and Winne, (2006) suggest all of these areas of research contribute to the science of learning and help develop guidelines for effective class room practises. The two research methods that influence scientific educational research are quantitative and qualitative approaches. Educational research tends to be a mixture of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies (Williams, 2011). Quantitative research methods are primarily experimental in nature and concerned with the causal relationships between dependent and independent variables, whereas qualitative research methods are primarily non-experimental and concerned with identifying and describing themes underlying human experience or the experience of a particular phenomenon (Della Porta Keating, 2008). Willis (2008) argues that quantitative and qualitative research methods are often borrow elements or techniques from each other. For example, program-evaluation research, action research, and teacher-as-researcher methods are forms of mixed educational research design that use elements of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies (Johnson, Christensen, 2008). Educational psychologists rely on quantitative based research methods to help them make decisions about school programs and practices (Slavin, 2002). Stanovich and Stanovich (2003) define quantitative based research as a form of study that uses systematic methods that draw on careful observation or experimentation in order to make valid, credible and reliable, conclusions. The science part of educational psychology seeks to sort fact from fiction by using particular strategies for obtaining information (Johnson Christensen, 2000; Kawachi, Kennedy Glass, 1999). Wolfe (2010) argues that the art of educational psychology lies in translating scientifically valid and reliable information into viable and effective classroom practice. Quantitative research is objective, testable, and systematic ( Kothari, 2011). Gravetter and Forzano, (2015) suggest that It reduces the likelihood that information will be based on personal beliefs, feelings and opinions. Quantitative research is based on the scientific method, an approach that can be used to discover accurate information. It includes these steps: conceptualize the problem, collect data, draw conclusions, and revise research conclusions and theory( Cronbach, 1957).Once data has been collected, educational psychologists use statistical procedures to understand the meaning of their quantitative data to help draw conclusions. They also compare their findings with what others have discovered about the same issue. The final step in the scientific method is revising research conclusions and theory (Mertens, 2014).Slavin and Davis, (2006) suggest that educational psychologists have generated a number of theories about the best ways for students to learn McInerney, (2005) suggests that when an educational psychologist wants to test a hypothesis they can choose from many methods, such as observation .Scientific observation is highly systematic. It requires knowing what is being looked for, conducting observations in an unbiased manner, accurately recording and categorizing what was seen, and effectively communicating these observations (Hersen, Haynes Heiby, 2003). A common way to record observations is to write them down, using shorthand or symbols. In addition, tape recorders, video cameras, special coding sheets, one-way mirrors, and computers can be used to make observations more efficient. (Coolican, 2009). Educational psychologists conduct research in laboratories at the universities where they work and teach, although laboratories often help researchers gain more control in their studies, they have been criticized as being artificial. In representational observation, behaviour is observed out in the real world (McInerney, 2005 ).Educational psychologists conduct representational observations of children in classrooms, at museums, on playgrounds, in homes, in neighbourhoods, and in other settings (Gà ¶ncà ¼, Jain Tuermer, 2007). Educational psychologists use interviews and questionnaires to find out about students’ and teachers’ experiences (Vaughn, Schumm Sinagub, 1996). Interviews normally take place face-to-face, although they can be done over the phone or the Internet whereas questionnaires are usually given to individuals in printed form and can be filled out in many ways, such as in person, by mail, or via the Internet (Coolican, 2009). Good interviews and surveys involve concrete, specific, and unambiguous questions and some means of checking the authenticity of the respondents’ replies (Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls Ormston, 2013). However Fowler (2008) argues that interviews and surveys are not without problems. One crucial limitation is that many individuals give socially desirable answers, responding in a way they think is most socially acceptable and desirable rather than how they truly think or feel. For example, some teachers, when interviewed or asked to fill out a questionna ire about their teaching practices, hesitate to admit honestly how frequently they chide or criticize their students (Loughran, 2002). Skilled interviewing techniques and questions that increase forthright responses are crucial to obtaining accurate information. Another problem with interviews and surveys is that the respondents sometimes simply lie (Coolican, 2009). Another type of research method used by educational psychologists are case studies (Woolfson, 2011). Crosling Webb, ( 2002) define case studies as descriptions of â€Å"real-life† experiences that illustrate important concepts and issues in a field of study . In other words, a case study is an in-depth examination of an individual or situation A case study presents a unique method for combining theory and practice in a problem-solving framework. Case studies differ from spoken or written statements, in that they typically do not contain outcomes or conclusions, but leave the reader to contemplate the most appropriate course of action (Crosling Webb, 2002).Traditionally, case studies have been associated with business, medicine, and law. Recently, however, case studies increasingly have been used in education to help teachers and teacher-candidates develop essential problem recognition and resolution skills (Clandinin Connelly, 2000; Elliott, Woloshyn, DiPetta, Bennett, 200 0). Educational Psychologists use psychometric testing during the assessment for dyslexia. Lyon, Shaywitz and Shaywitz (2003) define dyslexia as a specific learning difficulty that is unexpected in relation to an individuals cognitive abilities. Psychometric testing methods such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) (Wechsler 1949), which is an individually administered intelligence test designed for children between the ages of six and sixteen (Cohen, 2011) and contains fifteen subtests that provide a comprehensive assessment of intellectual ability which are divided into ten core subtests and five supplemental subtests (Grizzle, 2011). The Wechsler Individual Achievement Tests (WIAT) (Wechsler, 1992) is also used, and is a comprehensive test that assesses academic achievement by testing the ability to apply cognitive skills and knowledge to graded expectations It alsoincludes nine subtests designed to assess specific areas within the areas of reading, mathematics, writ ten language, and oral language (Johnson, 2011) Another psychometric test used in the assessment of dyslexia is the Kaufman assessment battery for children (KABC)( Kaufman Kaufman, 1983), which is a consistent and valid measure of cognitive abilities for children aged three to eighteen (Hall Noggle, 2011). Psychometric tests are defined by Coolican (2009) as instruments that measure mental measurement and include personality scales and also include measures of mental ability such as intelligence, linguistic ability, creative thinking etc. Psychometric tests are mainly used in educational settings to help identify students who may need additional learning support (Stapleton, 2001). Vernon and Parry (1949) argue that the variables that psychometric tests such as the WISC and KABC scales, use, are always the best measures, and for educational purposes most of the relevant variables are measured by well accepted tests. They also suggest that this is one of the main arguments for the use of psychometric testing over interviews or recommendations from teachers (Vernon Parry, 1949). Mislevy, Behrens, Dicerbo and Levy (2012) suggest that psychometrics is the measurement of educational and psychological construct. As the WISC-V, WIAT-II and KABC-II scales are all variations on pervious scales (i.e. the WISC scale is currently on version five) and have been validated by comparison with previous models they have concurrent validity (Coolican, 2009).Coolican (2009) also suggests that new personality and IQ tests are often compared with older but similar models that have been known to have good validity. Stapleton (2001) suggests that if an assessment score can is closely correlated with future performance, then the assessment used is said to have predictive validity, and that in turn the assessment can be used to predict the likelihood of future academic success or failure. However Atkinson, Atkinson, Smith and Bem (1993) argue that the degree of correlation between IQ scores and psychometric testing and people’s academic achievement declines as a student moves up from primary school to higher education. Moreno (2011) states that group intelligence tests are more practical than individual intelligence tests as they are designed to assess several students simultaneously, however due to their tendency to be less accurate than individual intelligence tests, some authorities do not administer the use of group IQ tests. Due to numerous technical problems with IQ calculations, such as the fact that chronological age increases indefinably, mental age does not, deviation IQ scores are used to interpret the results of IQ tests (Kline, 2013). References Alexander, P., Winne, P. (2006).  Handbook of educational psychology. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum. Atkinson, R.L., Atkinson, R.C., Smith, E.E., Bem, D.J. (1993). Introduction to Psychology (11th ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovitch. Berliner, D., Calfee, R. (2004).  Handbook of educational psychology. New York: Routledge. Clandinin, D. J., Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. Cohen, M. J. (2011).  Children’s memory scale(pp. 556-559). Springer New York. Coolican, H. (2009).  Research methods and statistics in psychology. London: Hodder Education. Cronbach, L. J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology.  American psychologist, 12(11), 671. Crosling, G., Webb, G. (2002).  Supporting student learning. London: Kogan Page. Della Porta, D., Keating, M. (2008).  Approaches and methodologies in the social sciences. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. Elliott, A., Woloshyn, V., DiPetta., Bennett, S (2002). Instructors manual for stories from Canadian classrooms. Toronto, ON : Pearson Education. Fowler Jr, F. J. (2008).  Survey research methods. Sage publications. Gà ¶ncà ¼, A., Jain, J., Tuermer, U. (2007). Children’s play as cultural interpretation.Play and development: Evolutionary, sociocultural, and functional perspectives, 155-178. Gravetter, F., Forzano, L. (2015).  Research methods for the behavioural sciences (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Grizzle, R. (2011). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. In  Encyclopaedia of Child Behaviour and Development(pp. 1553-1555). Springer US Hall, J. J., Noggle, C. A. (2011). Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children. In  Encyclopaedia of Child Behaviour and Development(pp. 853-854). Springer US. Hersen, M., Haynes, S., Heiby, E. (2003).  Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment. New York: Wiley. Johnson, K. L. (2011). Wechsler Individual Achievement Test. In  Encyclopaedia of Clinical Neuropsychology(pp. 2681-2682). Springer New York. Johnson, B., Christensen, L. (2000).  Educational research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Allyn Bacon. Johnson, B., Christensen, L. (2008).  Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches. Sage. Kaufman, A. S., Kaufman, N. L. (1983).  K-ABC: Kaufman assessment battery for children: Interpretive manual. American Guidance Service. Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B. P., Glass, R. (1999). Social capital and self-rated health: a contextual analysis.American journal of public health, 89(8), 1187-1193. Kline, P. (2013).  Handbook of psychological testing. Routledge Kothari, C. R. (2011).  Research methodology: methods and techniques. New Age International. Loughran, J. J. (2002).  Developing reflective practice: Learning about teaching and learning through modelling. Routledge. Lyon, G., Shaywitz, S., Shaywitz, B. (2003). A definition of dyslexia.Annals Of Dyslexia, 53(1), 1-14 McInerney, D. M. (2005). Educational Psychology–Theory, Research, and Teaching: A 25 year retrospective.Educational Psychology, 25(6), 585-599 Mertens, D. M. (2014).  Research and evaluation in education and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Sage Publications. Mislevy, R. J., Behrens, J. T., Dicerbo, K. E., Levy, R. (2012). Design and discovery in educational assessment: evidence-centred design, psychometrics, and educational data mining.  JEDM-Journal of Educational Data Mining, 4(1), 11-48. Moreno, R. (2010).Educational psychology. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley Sons. Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., Nicholls, C. M., Ormston, R. (Eds.). (2013).  Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers. Sage. Slavin, R. E. (2002). Evidence-based education policies: Transforming educational practice and research.  Educational researcher, 31(7), 15-21. Slavin, R. E., Davis, N. (2006). Educational psychology: Theory and practice .Stanovich, P. J., Stanovich, K. E. (2003). Using research and reason in education: How teachers can use scientifically based research to make curricular instructional decisions. Washington, DC: US Department of Education Stapleton, M. (2001). Education. London: Hodder Stoughton. Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. S., Sinagub, J. M. (1996).  Focus group interviews in education and psychology. Sage Publications. Vernon, P. E., Parry, J. B. (1949). Personnel selection in the British forces. Wechsler, D. (1949). Wechsler intelligence scale for children. Wechsler, D. (1992). Wechsler individual achievement test Psychological Corporation.  San Antonio. Williams, C. (2011). Research methods.Journal of Business Economics Research (JBER), 5(3). Willis, J. (Ed.). (2008).  Qualitative research methods in education and educational technology. IAP. Wittrock, M. C. (1989). Generative processes of comprehension.  Educational psychologist, 24(4), 345-376. Wolfe, P. (2010).  Brain matters: Translating research into classroom practice. ASCD.

Vera Bradley

Bad Brads BBQ purchased a piece of equipment by paying $5,000 cash. They also incurred a shipping cost of $400 to get the equipment to its factory. The fair value of this equipment is $7,000. For what amount should Bad Brads BBQ record the equipment? | $5,000. | | $5,400. | | $7,000. | | $7,400. | Research and development costs should be: | Expensed in the period incurred. | | Expensed in the period they are determined to be unsuccessful. | | Deferred pending determination of success. | | Expensed if unsuccessful, capitalized if successful. | Goodwill is: Amortized over the greater of its estimated life or forty years. | | Only recorded by the seller of a business. | | The excess of the fair value of a business as a whole over the fair value of all net identifiable assets. | | Recorded when created internally through advertising expense. | Which of the following is considered a â€Å"contra† account? | Unearned Revenue. | | Goodwill. | | Accumulated Depreciation. | | Costs of Good Sold. | Using the straight-line method, depreciation expense for 2012 would be: | $12,000. | | $11,000. | | $60,000. | | None of the other answers are correct. Using the straight-line method, the book value at December 31, 2012 would be: | $44,000. | | $49,000. | | $55,000. | | $60,000. | Using the double-declining balance method, depreciation expense for 2012 would be: | $24,000. | | $22,000. | | $19,000. | | $20,000. | Using the double-declining balance method, depreciation expense for 2013 would be: | $22,000. | | $13,200. | | $14,400. | | $24,000. | Berry Co. purchases a patent on January 1, 2012, for $40,000 and the patent has an expected useful life of five years with no residual value. Assuming Berry Co. ses the straight-line method, what is the  amortization expense  for the year ended December 31, 2013? | $0. | | $8,000. | | $16,000. | | $40,000. | Abbott Company purchased a computer that cost $10,000. It had an estimated useful life of 5 years and no residual valu e. The computer was depreciated by the straight-line method and was sold at the end of the fourth year of use for $3,000 cash. Abbott should record: | a gain of $1,000. | | a loss of $1,000. | | neither a gain nor a loss – the computer was sold at its book value. | | neither a gain nor a loss – the gain that occurred in this case would not be recognized. |

Evaluative Writing Essay

This article is based on the art of attack prevention and it aims at illustrating how security attack scenarios can be used to check the effectiveness of a system in preventing a system attack. Through the use of a system known as eSAP, the authors have made a report on how scenarios of possible attacks were selected and tested giving recommendations based on their results. The article comes in handy especially at a time where the issue on information system security is quite vital for companies to maintain. This paper analyzes the article by Haralambos, Paolo and Gordon’s article as to determine its appropriateness, usefulness and validity of the study. Throughout the study, examples and comparisons will be used to evaluate the work. Further justifications will be given for all arguments put forth. Evaluation The writer starts of the paper quite well by explaining what the paper will cover in the introduction. This gives the reader an overview of what to expect because he or she already has an idea of what the article is about (Memering’, 2008). The manner in which the introduction is done is also enticing such that the reader is encouraged to read on. Further, the authors introduce the article by referring to another article from which the current one stems from. This actually encourages the reader to desire to read the previous article. For those that cannot access it however, this is a disadvantage to them. Accordingly, it would have been wise for the writers to start with a brief history of the previously completed work so that the reader does can effectively understand where they started. Failure to do this is therefore a flaw in the paper and could impact on the desire of the reader to look at the paper. The authors make use of a real life example in the article to explain how the use of scenarios can be used to analyze the information systems design. eSAP (electronic Single Assessment Process) is assessed to using possible security attacks to establish whether its three main security features which include integrity, availability and privacy can be achieved in case of an attack (Haralambos, Paolo and Gordon, 2007). Attacks such as interruption, interception and modification were used to check eSAP. The use of an example not only makes the article more interesting to read but also enhances the understandability or the reader so that he or she can grasp exactly what the writers intend to say (Memering’, 2008). Besides this, the authors make use of a diagram for illustration. According to Memering, 2007), this is an effective way of making the readers to get the idea that the author is trying to pass across at a glance. For example, when a procedure is described in steps, the reader can actually follow these steps to and understand the described process better than when only the text was available. The article by Haralambos, Paolo and Gordon is quite useful in attack prevention. In the current times, many companies have been faced with threats of system attacks hence the need to avoid them. An example is a recent attack on Kaspersky, a major anti-virus vendor which occurred on the customer support site in February 2009 (O’Donnell, 2009). Since this paper addresses the possible ways in which systems meant to handle such cases can be tested, it is of significant importance. This paper could form a useful background for information system analysts to gauge the ability of different systems to effectively address the desired security concerns. Another reason why this article is very useful is that for every factor tested, there is a recommendation given to reduce the likelihood of the occurrence of that action in real life. For example, after testing the validity of passwords and the ability of the system to keep off intruders, the authors suggest the use of one-time passwords. Such kind of advice could be used by technicians to further enhance system security and thereby protect it from attack. This study is quite relevant in the study of information system security because it is quite unique in its own way. While other studies concentrate on showing the likely situations that are may face the security system, this paper suggests ways of testing them as well. Liu and Yu (2007) are some of the authors who came closest to doing this kind of research by analyzing the possible intentions of attackers which are also contained in this paper. They however left the research at that and did not proceed to test the scenarios. According to Liu and Yu (2007), once the attackers’ intentions are identified, the countermeasures to prevent attack can then be identified. They however fail to show the criteria that would be used to prevent attacks. Through the use of the eSAP scenario, Haralambos, Paolo and Gordon bring out the concept so well and even give suggestions on how to handle attacks. It is a good way of testing the effectiveness of a system in handling various security attacks which the management can utilize to establish which system to use in attack prevention. This is in line with what Liu and Yu (2009) suggest. According to them, a system can only be useful if it performs the job it is designed for. As an example, there is no way a system can allow every employee in a department to have a password and expect that this to be a secure way of protecting their system from attackers. This is a well researched article and it would be right to say that it is valid both in terms of facts and expressions made by the authors. Before the authors could perform the test, a set of scenarios are selected which are then put through a scenario validation procedure. This is done using software inspections so that the data validity is assured. The authors also make use of numerous sources to as backup for the study which makes the information contained valid to a large extent. Conclusion A paper that succeeds in putting across the desired message is said to be appropriate. If it is of benefit, then it is useful to the leaders. Should the paper give facts that can be evidenced then we can afford to say that it is valid. The article by Haralambos, Paolo and Gordon leaves the reader with a lot of knowledge to grasp. It is well researched using various books and the results can be said to be valid as they made use of a real life situation to test the system. The authors make the article simpler to understand through the use of examples and a diagram. The recommendations given in the paper could also prove useful to future managers and system technicians in designing strategies of attack prevention. References Liu, L. , Yu, E. , Mylopoulos, J. , (2007). Analyzing Security Requirements as Relationships Among Strategic Actors, Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium on Requirements Engineering for Information Security (SREIS’02), Raleigh-North Carolina. Memering, D. (2008). The writer’s work: guide to effective composition. New York: Prentice-Hall. Mouratidis, H. , Giorgini, P. & Manson, G. (2007). Using Security Attack Scenarios to Analyse Security During Information Systems Design. Retrieved on July 20, 2009 from http://homepages. uel. ac. uk/H. Mouratidis/Paper91_CR. pdf O’Donnell, A. (2009). Kaspersky suffers attack on support site, no apparent data breach. Retrieved on July 20, 2009 from http://blogs. zdnet. com/security/? p=2511

The Everlasting Glory Of Gilgamesh, Achilles And Odysseus

Heroes are great because they often have exaggerated traits. These traits are often manifested in the text when when they intentionally throw themselves in the face of death to gain their glory and fame. Although death is a concern for Gilgamesh, Achilles and Odysseus, the three do not respond in exactly the same way. The everlasting glory of Gilgamesh, Achilles and Odysseus come from how they deal with mortality. Heroes accept the fact that without the risk of the death, there tends to be no glory. Gilgamesh accepts this fact, unbeknownst to him, only theoretically. Initially, he even mocks Enkidu for his suggestions that they should consider how dangerous Humbaba is before heading taking on the mission of killing such a powerful monster. Gilgamesh, to counter Enkidu, suggests that living without glory would be worst than death and it would be shameful for them to pass on an opportunity for glory just because it would be dangerous ( ). Although Gilgamesh makes this assertion confidently during the passage, he does not believe this in reality as evident in the later in the narrative when he has a crisis over his mortality when Enkidu dies. So far, Gilgamesh had yet to face a foe that he had not been able to conquer but he realizes that he cannot bring back his friend from death, not through anger nor rage. It is worth noting than Enkidu is a match of Gilgamesh in strength so if Enkidu can su ccumb to death so can he. He truly realizes his own mortality because of this butShow MoreRelatedA True Hero in the Epic of Gigamesh Essay1689 Words   |  7 PagesWhat makes a hero? A hero can be born into greatness and lead an ordinary life. A hero can achieve and glory greatness and carry a noble death to their name. What turns an individual into the characteristic of a â€Å"hero† will depend on the journey they set upon. From ancient Greek culture, the concept of a hero was built from idolizing a religious figure, a deceased person who received cult honors and was expected to return home bearing prosperity in forms of plants or animals, back to their peopleRead MoreSearch for Immortality Depicted in The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey852 Words   |  4 Pagesobjective of their travels and adventures. This is no different in The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey. The heroes in both are tempted by the offer of immortality, however each of them turns it down for their o wn reasons. In The Odyssey, Odysseus rejects the offer of immortality from the goddess Calypso long after he discovers the true nature of the afterlife after travelling to Hades. In Hades he meets Achilles who tells him â€Å"I’d rather slave on earth for another man. than rule down here overRead MoreThe Epic Of Gilgamesh And Achilles1775 Words   |  8 Pageshistory and cultural tradition of the gods and heroes of Greece. Achilles and Gilgamesh are considered mythological heroes; they are both hero’s that faces many problems through their journey and have fought many battles. These two legends have remained precious to the people now because their hero’s journey is unforgettable. They are both brave, and they have overcome many challenges to protect their family and city. Both Gilgamesh and Achilles share some similarities, such as they are both sons of a goddessRead More Gilgamesh, Achilles and the Human Condition Essay3880 Words   |  16 PagesGilgamesh, Achilles and the Human Condition Gilgamesh and Achilles, each heroes of their respective epic tales, embody the whole array of typical heroic attributes. They stand above. They are men set apart. They operate somehow in that area that lies between average mortals and the gods themselves. They are stronger, faster, more wily than those they face in battle. They overcome. They are men who stand alone in their various strengths. They are also susceptible to weakness. Each of them